FIRST AID FOR COMPUTERS' A DEBATE.
First Aid can be defined as immediate “help” administered immediately after an accident. The reason that “help” is in parenthesis, is that help is the operative word. First aid is not necessarily administered by a person with any medical training at all, It can be administered by anyone, anywhere, the only criteria in giving first aid is that you are the first on the scene of an accident or incident. The worst case scenario here would be giving a cup of tea to a victim of a road accident, when the victim has internal and spinal injuries. This is not “help” at all and would definitely be better not being administered. However we generally mean something more involved when we define first aid.There are cases when first aid can be given by the victim. A rare number of people display a violent reaction to bee stings. Approximately 1% of the population go into anaphylactic shock, which threatens their breathing and their circulatory system. This can be fatal if not treated immediately, most people die without treatment within thirty minutes, cases of death have been recorded in less than five minutes. Clearly here no one can afford to wait for outside first aid. Treatment has to be used immediately often by the victim themselves. This definition implies a knowledge if limited. You have to be aware in the first instance that you suffer from this reaction, and be aware of the necessary emergency treatment.Hopefully when most of us think of first aid as a concept we are thinking of a more professional case scenario. Merriam Webster online dictionary defines first aid as “emergency care or treatment given to an ill or injured person before regular medical aid can be obtained“.[i] First aid is the immediate and temporary treatment of a victim of sudden illness or injury while awaiting the arrival of medical aid. Proper early measures may be instrumental in saving life and ensuring a better and more rapid recovery.[ii] Both these definitions suggest that the person administering the first aid has a level of training, and knowledge about certain medical issues. Certain conditions such as a stroke and cardiac require immediate attention. If you have a stroke then your chances of survival are improved by fifty percent if you have treatment which involves clot busting drugs.[iii] These treatments are administered by a doctor and cannot be defined as first aid.There are many definitions of the word doctor. The word itself is derived from the Latin word docére which means to teach. The principle definition means instructor, one who inculcates learning, opinions or principles. Hence it can also be used to describe someone who has taken a PhD, the highest degree conferred by a university.The first person at the scene of the accident may well be a doctor and they may treat the patient. However they cannot administer first aid, despite the fact that the first definition is broad and means the first person at the scene. A medical doctor has taken the “Hippocratic oath”[iv] , a copy of which can be viewed at the conclusion of this article. As can be seen from the Hippocratic Oath, the treatment that has been administered by a doctor is more than the immediate attention of first aid. It involves a binding link between the doctor and patient, which involves more than the administering of medicine.Whether the word doctor is taken as the highest measure of learning or a medical doctor it is clear that the word implies the highest level of knowledge and means that a commensurate level of competence is expected. An incident accident or emergency that needs either first aid or a doctor or even both may not even be medical. As we have seen the word doctor merely means instructor. In the areas of software PC Doctor and PC first aid cannot be confused. As in the medical world the definitions are different and the boundaries can never cross.Classic Version of the Hippocratic OathI swear by Apollo Physician and Asclepius and Hygieia and Panaceia and all the gods and goddesses, making them my witnesses, that I will fulfil according to my ability and judgment this oath and this covenant:To hold him who has taught me this art as equal to my parents and to live my life in partnership with him, and if he is in need of money to give him a share of mine, and to regard his offspring as equal to my brothers in male lineage and to teach them this art - if they desire to learn it - without fee and covenant; to give a share of precepts and oral instruction and all the other learning to my sons and to the sons of him who has instructed me and to pupils who have signed the covenant and have taken an oath according to the medical law, but no one else.I will apply dietetic measures for the benefit of the sick according to my ability and judgment; I will keep them from harm and injustice.I will neither give a deadly drug to anybody who asked for it, nor will I make a suggestion to this effect. Similarly I will not give to a woman an abortive remedy. In purity and holiness I will guard my life and my art.I will not use the knife, not even on sufferers from stone, but will withdraw in favor of such men as are engaged in this work.Whatever houses I may visit, I will come for the benefit of the sick, remaining free of all intentional injustice, of all mischief and in particular of sexual relations with both female and male persons, be they free or slaves.What I may see or hear in the course of the treatment or even outside of the treatment in regard to the life of men, which on no account one must spread abroad, I will keep to myself, holding such things shameful to be spoken about.If I fulfil this oath and do not violate it, may it be granted to me to enjoy life and art, being honored with fame among all men for all time to come; if I transgress it and swear falsely, may the opposite of all this be my lot.A Modern Version of the Hippocratic OathI swear to fulfill, to the best of my ability and judgment, this covenant:I will respect the hard-won scientific gains of those physicians in whose steps I walk, and gladly share such knowledge as is mine with those who are to follow.I will apply, for the benefit of the sick, all measures which are required, avoiding those twin traps of overtreatment and therapeutic nihilism.I will remember that there is art to medicine as well as science, and that warmth, sympathy, and understanding may outweigh the surgeon's knife or the chemist's drug.I will not be ashamed to say "I know not," nor will I fail to call in my colleagues when the skills of another are needed for a patient's recovery.I will respect the privacy of my patients, for their problems are not disclosed to me that the world may know. Most especially must I tread with care in matters of life and death. If it is given me to save a life, all thanks. But it may also be within my power to take a life; this awesome responsibility must be faced with great humbleness and awareness of my own frailty. Above all, I must not play at God.I will remember that I do not treat a fever chart, a cancerous growth, but a sick human being, whose illness may affect the person's family and economic stability. My responsibility includes these related problems, if I am to care adequately for the sick.I will prevent disease whenever I can, for prevention is preferable to cure.I will remember that I remain a member of society, with special obligations to all my fellow human beings, those sound of mind and body as well as the infirm.If I do not violate this oath, may I enjoy life and art, respected while I live and remembered with affection thereafter. May I always act so as to preserve the finest traditions of my calling and may I long experience the joy of healing those who seek my help.The classical version of the Hippocratic Oath is from the translation from the Greek by Ludwig Edelstein. From The Hippocratic Oath: Text, Translation, and Interpretation, by Ludwig Edelstein. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1943.The modern version of the Hippocratic Oath was written in 1964 by Louis Lasagna, Dean of the School of Medicine at Tufts University.[i] Merriam Webster online dictionary accessed 19th April 2006http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/first%20aidinfoplease accessed 19th April 2006[ii] http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0818750.html[iii] Uci medical centre. accessed 19th April 2006http://www.ucihealth.com/seniors/Sum04SurviveStroke.htm[iv] http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=20909&page=2

FORTY HEALTH AND SPORTS ARTICLES.

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• Rectal Bleeding
• Abdominal Pain
• Swollen Glands
• Cold Feet
• Chest Pain
• Dry Mouth
• Knee Pains
• Hair Loss
• Breast Discharge
• Frequent Urination
• Heart Attack
• Heart Attack Symptoms
• How to Prevent Heart Attacks
• How to prevent heart attackssportsports equipmentsports equipment storessports fitness equipmentsport books---
• If possible, please also attach 1-2 photo(s) for the equipments/products below jumping stilts Exercise Bikes Elliptical TrainersreadmillsElliptical Trainers Exercise Wheels Chin-Up Bars Home GymsDumbellsExercise ApparelsCycling equipmentsPaintballPaintball equipments--- If possible, please also attach 1-2 photo(s) for the equipments/products below Blood Pressure Monitors Heart Rate Monitors Massage Chairs weight loss products First Aid KitsThermometersPregnancy TestsCholesterol TestsFertility Tests
  
  

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  ARTICLE I
  
  
  RECTAL BLEEDING
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
• Diagram of the rectum
• Definition And Function Of The Rectum
• Description of Rectal Bleeding
• Sources of Rectal Bleeding
• Colour of the Blood in Rectal bleeding.
• Causes of rectal bleeding.

Diagram of The Rectum

Definition And Function Of The Rectum
The rectum is the posterior end of the digestive tract of the large intestine. The word itself is a misnomer as it comes from the Latin and it originally meant straight, and as the diagram illustrates the human rectum is not. It is a repository for fecal matter, and it has the traverse folds illustrated in the diagram, these folds hold the faeces in position, until you are ready to go to the toilet.

Description of Rectal Bleeding
Rectal Bleeding is known medically as hematochezia, it does not indeed refer to bleeding from the rectum but from the anus, which is the orifice to the outside. The blood is bright red but it may be mixed with fecal matter, and or blood clots. The rectum itself lies immediately above the anus. Although the blood may be emanating from the rectum it may also be coming from the intestinal tract, as illustrated in the diagram of the large intestine below. The flow of blood may be mild moderate or severe.

• Mild bleeding is only sufficient to turn the water in the toilet bowl a pale pink. This normally stops on its own accord and does not normally require treatment or hospitalisation.
  
  
• Moderate bleeding is heavier and it may be mixed with blood clots in which case the blood is dark, or if it is a bright red colour then it is only fresh blood.
  
  
• Severe rectal bleeding is sometimes a single bowel movement that is accompanied by a large blood flow. Or in other cases it is a series of bowel movements accompanied by blood loss

Both moderate and severe cases of rectal bleeding need to be evaluated by a doctor, and in certain cases they require hospitalisation.

Sources of Rectal Bleeding

In the majority of cases rectal bleeding comes from the anus, the rectum, or the colon.

• The Colon

The colon is situated above the rectum, and is part of the digestive tracts. The food passes through the colon once it has left the small intestine. The colon’s job is to remove the water content from the undigested food, which makes it smaller in matter, and then store it until it is eliminated as a stool. The rectum is the last eight inches of the colon and the anal canal or the anus is the orifice, which ejects the stool from the body. Various names, the large intestine, the large bowel, or the lower gastrointestinal tract, refer to the colon, the rectum and the anus, as a whole unit and it comprises of several feet of muscular tubes. Conversely the oesophagus, stomach, duodenum, and small intestine are referred to as the upper gastrointestinal tract
The colon itself is sub divided into three areas the right colon, the transverse colon, and the left colon, as seen on the diagram below.

Colour of the Blood in Rectal bleeding
The colour of the blood is often an indication of the cause of the bleeding. The bleeding can come anywhere from the digestive tract, the higher it comes from the darker it will be. This means in general that if the bleeding is a result of a duodenal ulcer the blood is likely to be darker than if it is coming from the rectum itself where it is more likely to be bright red.
When the right colon bleeds it can contain melena, which are black stools their consistency like tar, accompanied by an objectionable smell. When the blood is in the colon for a longer period of time the blood is broken down into chemicals, which colour and taint the stool. Typically melena occur when the bleeding is coming from higher in the digestive tract such as a duodenal, or stomach ulcer, although occasionally it can be a result of bleeding from the right colon.
However sometimes when these ulcers perforate the blood passes through so quickly it does not have time to break down and it will exit the body as a bright red colour. Evidence of rectal bleeding is not always apparent, when the blood is slight and very slow as is the case with rectal polyps, then the blood loss is absorbed by the stool, and cannot be detected. In these cases a fecal occult blood is necessary to establish whether or not there is blood present.

Causes of rectal bleeding

Haemorrhoids

Haemorrhoids are a collection of tissues within the anus, which contain blood vessels.Contrary to popular belief everyone has them; it is only when they become enlarged or distended that they cause pain and bleed. The resultant blood flow rarely causes anaemia or low blood pressure, but if they are left untreated for years they may cause iron deficiency anaemia.

Anal fissure

Anal fissures occur when the lining of the rectum is torn, usually as a result of constipation or a strong bowel movement, though tight anal muscles may cause the problem. It can be an extremely painful condition, because the condition is aggravated by subsequent bowel movements. As it has the same symptoms as haemorrhoids, the light bright blood it is often confused with them, however haemorrhoids do not cause pain during a bowel movement.

Diverticulosis

Diverticulitis usually develops in people between the age of fifty and sixty years, and the exact cause of their development are not understood. The colon develops little pockets or sacks, and once they have formed they are permanent, the only way of removing them is to remove the affected portion of the colon. This can be done as the diverticula can occur in any part of the colon they are more often observed in the sigmoid colon.
The majority of sufferers will not be aware of the problem until one of these sacks gets an infection or they rupture; it is at this point that the condition becomes diverticulitis. Diverticulitis causes moderate to severe rectal bleeding, it can require a blood transfusion. The colour of the blood is not always an indication, as when the blood is coming from the sigmoid colon it tends to be bright red, as it is when it coming from the right colon if the blood flow is rapid. However there may be melena present in which case it is black, but in general the blood is n the darker side.
The bleeding does tend to stop without any treatment, but often reoccurs, within a short period of time.

Colon polyps and colon cancer.

Tumours within the colon and rectum originate from the walls of the large intestine, when they are benign they are described as polyps, but when they come malignant they are then called cancer. The amount of blood flow is generally minimal, often bright red, but the darker stools are present which are often maroon and melena may be present. When the blood is mixed with the stool and occurs over a long period of time severe iron deficiency anaemia may become an issue. As many of the cancers of the colon have developed from polyps they are generally surgically removed. Whilst colon cancer is not a rare disease ninety percent of it would be eliminated if we ate the recommended amount of fibre and had regular screening once over the age of fifty. In India where the majority of the people are vegetarians the disease is almost unknown.

Polypectomy

A polypectomy is the surgical removal of benign polyps in the colon. This can cause bleeding for weeks after the surgery. However the severity of the bleeding depends on the size of the polyps. The bleeding can be severe and fast flowing and it may be bright red, dark red, maroon, purple or black.

Angiodysplasias

Angiodysplasias is conditions, which generally worsen with age, they are enlarged blood vessels and they are bright red lesions, which radiate like a spider’s web beneath the lining of the colon. They can develop all over the common, but are usually found in the right portion of the colon. The resultant bleeding is not accompanied by pain, but they can cause occult bleeding whereby the blood becomes part of the stool and iron deficiency anaemia can occur. The blood loss can be light or dark or black.

Colitis and proctitis

Colitis is defined as inflammation of the colon, whilst proctisis is the equivalent inflammation of the rectum. The inflammation can occur from a plethora of conditions, examples are bacterial or viral infection, ulcerative colitis or proctitis, Crohn’s colitis, ischemic colitis, and radiation colitis or proctitis.
Ulcerative colitis, ulcerative proctitis, and Crohn’s colitis are caused by an overactive immune system. One of the symptoms includes diarrhoea often mixed with blood, but occasionally the rectal bleeding can be moderate to severe, when it originates from ulcerations of the colon.
Infections such as salmonella, shigella, Campylobacter, C. difficile, E. Coli O157:H7, and cytomegalovirus can inflame the colon. They normally only cause diarrhoea with can have traces of blood in it, but in rare occasions moderate to severe bleeding can accompany these infections.
Blood clots can obstruct the arteries that bring blood to the colon, and this happens rapidly causing an inflammation of the colon, which is known as Ischemic colitis. The area affected is normally in the region of the splenic flexure.


Because the blood flow is so immediate it can lead to ulceration within the colon, which is followed, by abdominal cramps, and then rectal bleeding. In these cases the blood flow is minimal and will normally stop within a few days, though the ulcer can take a little longer to heal.
Radiation proctitis follows pelvic radiation occurs after treatment for prostate cancer, this causes permanent changes within the lining of the colon and it may mean that there are instances of rectal bleeding for years. However the level of bleeding is usually mild but if the condition is chronic then anaemia may result.

Meckel’s diverticulum

Meckel’s diverticulum occurs in a very small number of the population from birth. It is a small sack near the junction of the colon and the small intestine. Occasionally they secrete acid that causes small ulcers, and they may bleed. This is the most common cause of rectal bleeding in young adults, teenagers and children. Whilst the flow of blood can be brisk its colour varies from bright red to dark, and often results in purple stools.

Rare causes of rectal bleeding

When bleeding is both rapid and severe from the upper gastrointestinal tract it is bright red, as it has no time to discolour and is usually a result of stomach or duodenal ulcers. Sometimes a blood vessel ruptures and this causes the blood to leak into the gastrointestinal tract when this occurs it is eliminated from the body via the anus. This event may occur when an aortic graft is being performed to repair an aortic aneurysm. Very rarely rectal bleeding may result from tumours within the small intestine or the rectum.

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ARTICLE 2
Abdominal Pain.

In this article:

• Definition of Abdominal pain.
• Causes of abdominal pain
• The four abdominal quadrant
• When to seek medical assistance
• Diagnosis of abdominal pain
• Sources of the pain

Definition of Abdominal pain.
Pain is defined as being abdominal if it is between the diaphragm and hips, and it includes such organs as the stomach, the small and large intestine, liver, pancreas, colon, and the gallbladder. Abdominal pain can mean a transient inconsequential condition or a serious disease. It may be short or long term, acute or chronic, the nature of the pain may be stabbing or intermittent or dull.
This makes diagnosis problematical and this situation is aggravated by the fact it may not be caused from the chest, the pain may be coming from the abdominal wall, which surrounds the abdomen. If the pain is dull and chronic, then it can be extremely difficult to determine the cause. To further complicate the matter the matter the pain may be emanating from the lower lungs, the kidneys, and the uterus or ovaries, but it is felt in the abdomen.

Causes of abdominal pain
Inflammation causes colitis, Diverticulitis and appendicitis, whilst distension of an organ causes obstruction of the intestine, swollen liver from hepatitis and when gallstones block the bile duct. Sometimes the pain is a result of loss of blood to an organ as in ischemic colitis. However there are important instances when the pain is not caused by either inflammation, loss of blood supply or distension. It may be caused by digestive disorders or irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). The cause if IBS is not entirely understood but it is believed to be abnormal contractions of the intestinal muscles, abnormally sensitive nerves within the intestines. Most of the abdominal organs are situated within the peritoneum, and all are capable of adjusting their position, they move during pregnancy to accommodate the foetus. In addition, pain in the abdomen may result from a heart attack or a Streptococcus throat infection. To facilitate diagnosis, and therefore treatment of abdominal pain, the abdomen is divided into four distinct segments.

The Four abdominal Quadrants

Because of the number of the size of the abdomen and the number of organs it contains it is divided into four to facilitate diagnosis. The first line is drawn horizontally through the umbilicus, whilst the second line passes through this at right angles along the meridian line.


Diagram of the abdominal quadrants.

Diagnosis of abdominal pain

Fortunately the majority of pains in the abdomen are a result of minor conditions, an excess of acid in the stomach, wind, constipation, overeating and other minor digestive disorders. All of these are treated at home usually with over the counter medicines. When abdominal pain is more severe and is the result of an ulcer then it is treated with drugs and possibly surgery.

In the cases where doctors cannot immediately isolate or identify the cause of pain, then further tests are carried out. When this occurs the doctor will look at the patient’s medical history, and may then order x-rays, as well as blood, and urine tests. Later it may be necessary to have ultrasound tests, an endoscopy, and if necessary a CAT scan.

When to seek medical assistance

There are cases of abdominal pain, which should never be trivialised or ignored if any of the following symptoms are present then medical help should be sought.

Consult a doctor if:

• When the pain has lasted over a week.
• when the abdominal pain is accompanied by other symptoms such as vomiting, a feeling of nausea, chills, and or a fever, or whenever any of the symptoms below are present.
• Your stomach or abdomen is very tender or swollen.
• If you are either pregnant or believe that you may be pregnant.
• Eating any type of fatty food causes the pain.
• When the pain is accompanied by a vaginal discharge.
• The pain is accompanied by cystitis, or painful urination.
• The pain is accompanied by dizziness, or a shortage of breath.

You have any reason to suspect that the cause is not trivial.

Consult emergency help if:

• The onset of the pain is severe sudden and constant.
• You are vomiting blood.
• When the pain is not localised in the abdomen and there are pains in the neck shoulder and the chest.
• Either there is blood in the stool or it is a tarry black colour

Sources of the pain

• Pains in the navel area
  Normally when there is pain in this area it indicates intestinal disorders or the appendix. When the appendix is inflamed it fills with pus, and without treatment it can result in peritonitis, which if left untreated can kill. Symptoms are abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, lack of appetite, a feeling of wind in the intestines, or the constant feeling of needing to have a bowel movement chills or fever.

• Pains in the epigastric area of the upper abdomen.

Persistent pain may indicate there are problems with the duodenum or small intestine, stomach, pancreas, or the gallbladder.

• Pains in the Upper right abdomen.

When the pain in this area is intense it is normally a result of an inflamed gall bladder, and it emanates out towards the centre of the abdomen and it may be felt in the back. Less commonly it may result from duodenal or pancreatic problems.

• Pains in the lower middle Abdomen.

When the pain extends to both sides of the abdomen, is often caused by colon problems. Women may be suffering from a urinary tract inflammation, or they may have an inflammatory disease of the pelvis

• Pains in the Lower left abdomen
  
  Pain in the lower left segment of the abdomen is in the area where food is expelled from the lower colon. It may be because of an infection in the colon such as Diverticulitis, or an inflammatory bowel disease.

• Pains in the Lower right abdomen
  Normally a result of problems of the colon, but appendicitis pains may spread to this region.
  
  
• Referred Pain
  Referred pain is when the abdominal pain has travelled along the nerve paths to cause pain in areas where there is no problem. For instance, pancreatic pain may be felt in the shoulder blades.

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ARTICLE 3

SWOLLEN GLANDS

In this article

• Definition of a gland
• Position of the glands in the human body
• Endocrine and exocrine glands
• Swollen Glands
• Definition of the Lymph nodes
• Why the lymph glands swell
• Syptoms of swollen glands
• Treatment of Swollen glands
• When to seek medical advice

Definition of a Gland

The word gland comes from the Old French glandre, whose stem is the Latin glandula. In the human body a gland means two things, firstly it is a group of cells or an organ that produces a secretion. This secretion can be used in another part of the body, or they eliminate the bodies waste products. The gland synthesise the substances needed by the body, and release these for the body to utilise through ducts or they are released directly into the blood stream.

Position of the glands in the human body.

Endocrine and Exocrine glands.

Glands of the body are classified as either exocrine or endocrine types. Exocrine glands are glands that retain ducts to the body surfaces, whilst endocrine glands are isolated ductless tissue that secrete their hormones directly into the blood stream.

Endocrine and exocrine glands secrete various products, which include the hormones, enzymes, metabolites, and other molecules. In exocrine glands, the products of the glands are secreted through the duct to the surface. The endocrine glans being ductless have to secrete their products directly into the bloodstream, through capillary action.

Exocrine Glands

• Sweat Glands
• Salivary Glands
• Mammary glands
• Many of the digestive glands.

Endocrine Glands

• The word endocrine is derived from the Greek "endo," which means within, and "krine," meaning to secrete. The endocrine system is the hormonal system, they regulate the cells that have receptors for the specific hormone. The hormones are chemical messengers that influence growth, development, and metabolic activities.They include the The endocrine system includes the hypothalamus,the pituitary gland, thyroid, adrenal glands, and the gonads which are the ovaries and testes.

Swollen Glands
"Swollen gland" is a description of the lymph glands when they are enlarged, when referring to children a lymph is enlarged when it is more than one centimetre (0.4 inch) in diameter.

Definition of the Lymph nodes.

The Lymph gland are correctly called lymph nodes. The lymph nodes are small clusters of cells located along the lymphatic vessels, particularly at the neck, armpit, and groin. Their function is to filter bacteria and foreign particles from the lymph fluid. When the lymph glands have swollen the palpable nodes can be felt with the fingers in;

• Groin area the inguinal region
• Armpit the axilla region.
• There are a chain of lymph nodes on either side of the front of the neck, both sides of the neck and down past each side of the back of the neck.
• Under the jaw and chin
• Behind the ears
• On the back of the head in the occiput region

Why the Lymph Glands Swell.

Inflammatory conditions of the lymph glands normally result from infections, an abscess and cancer, there are occasionally other causes but they are very rare. As a rule of thumb the onset of minor infections are sudden and painful, being causes by infections or injury, on the other hand tumour and cancers tend to develop painlessly and very gradually. Reasons why the lymphatic glands swell include:

• An increased number of lymphocytes are present locally because they are subduing the foreign substances, known as the antigens, as they fight the infection.
• Immune reaction to an infection such as viral infections that can occur with common infections such as the cold, or more serious infections such as HIV .
• Infiltration with malignant cancer cells called metastases which have spread to the lymph glands from other organs that have cancer, or from cancers of the blood.

Symptoms of Swollen Glands

• Typically swollen glands cause symptoms of an upper respiratory infection, which include a runny nose, a fever, sore throat, and slight swellings under the skin in the upper part of your neck, under your chin, and possibly around the ears. It may or may be accompanied by the condition of a sore throat.
• When the lymph glands are swollen within the body they exhibit different symptoms from those underneath the skin. The blockage of the lymphs here may cause the swelling of a limb, or a chronic cough, it is also possible that the swollen gland cannot be felt externally.
• Different types of swellings are caused by different infections they may be general when there is a fungal a parasitic or a HIV infection. General swellings may accompany some of the auto immune diseases such as lupus or rheumatoid arthritis.

Treatment of Swollen Glands.

Swollen glands become inflamed when they are fighting infection, and often the subside of their own accord without treatment, within a few days. However it may take weeks for the glands to return to their normal size.

When to Seek Medical advice

Call your doctor if you have the following symptom:

• Your glands don't get smaller after two weeks
• They continue to get larger
• Your swollen glands are red and tender to the touch.
• Your glands are in a rigid position, and you cannot manipulate them with your fingertips.
• You have a fever, experience night sweating or unexplained weight loss.
• If the swelling is close to your collarbone or in the lower part of the neck

In conclusion the condition of swollen glands rarely needs emergency treatment, but they should not be ignored if there is a sign of a growing infection, or the node is so infected it needs to be surgically drained, or if the pain is severe. Children's lymphatic systems are more active, and they often feel enlarged.

ARTICLE 4

COLD FEET

In this article:

• Causes of cold feet
• Damage resulting fromcold feet

Causes of Cold Feet

The most severe cold injury is frostbite, which is true tissue freezing (ice crystals form in skin and other tissues of the body). Frostbite causes permanent damage to blood vessels and other structures. Frostnip is also ice crystal formation in tissues but only in the very outer layer of the skin. It causes no permanent damage.
Immersion injury results from exposure of wet feet (or hands) to cold temperatures at or above freezing. It develops over hours to days and damages the nerves and muscles. Like frostbite, immersion injury causes permanent damage.
Other injuries due to cold hands or feet are pernio, Raynaud syndrome, cryoglobulin formation, and cold urticaria.

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ARTICLE 39
HEART RATE MONITORS

In this article
• What is a Heart rate monitor?
• The physiology of exercise.
• Relationship between V O2 max and heart rate.
• Why athlete’s recommend them
• Types Of Heart Rate Monitors.
• How to use a heart monitor
• Setting target goals for each workout
• Improving your athletic performance
• Setting realistic useful goalscatherincatherinecahterine

A heart rate monitor displays your heart rate, which is how fast it is working, or how hard it is working when you are having a workout or exercising. They are also referred to as HRM, Polar monitor, cardio monitor, and they may have an audio or visual readout. Some of the models have the bolt on goodies of a stopwatch, and they can convert how many calories the exercise is burning, whilst others can deal with preset workouts.

The physiology of exercise
Your body can be correctly identified as a combustion engine, in that it generates energy by utilizing fuel and oxygen. The cardio-vascular system delivers oxygen in the form of oxygenated blood from the lungs, to the muscles. The muscles convert this to mechanical energy, the type of energy it uses to get them working, by burning carbohydrates and fat as fuel for its engine.
The heart is no different from any other engine it can be tweaked for maximum performance. The heart can be made stronger and the muscles can become more efficient at extracting the oxygen from the blood. Within the muscle cells, the mitochondria can use their proteins in the form of enzyme systems to oxidize and burn the fuels. When you have a hard aerobic workout the aerobic system should be worked to capacity, but whilst it rests it becomes stronger. At your optimum fitness the heart is capable of pumping more blood with every beat, which means it send the oxygen needed by the muscles with less heart beats.
This level of fitness is achieved over a period of time and an accurate measurement of the rate of oxygen being "burned" by the muscles is necessary. Whilst the improvement in power is slow it is necessary to work the heart harder to achieve that level of fitness. To measure that level of fitness is also impractical outside of laboratory conditions. It would mean running on a treadmill whilst the heart rate is being monitored, and at the same time determining the concentration of oxygen in the exhaled oxygen. The disparity between the level oxygen inhaled, utilized by the muscles and then exhaled is the amount of oxygen consumed by the muscles during exercise. The rate of the oxygen consumed in liters per minute is known as V O2. When the muscles are utilizing their maximum levels of oxygen it is known as V O2 max. Whilst these tests have been carried out physiologists have discovered that there is a level beneath V O2 max in which the muscles make no gains in utilizing the oxygen.

Relationship between V O2 max and heart rate.










In general for most people this works out at about 55 percent of V O2max and it means that you are not overloading either your cardio vascular system or your muscular system and there will be no improvement in performance.

As the graph illustrates, 55% VO2 max corresponds to approximately 70% max heart rate.
Individual athletes have not got the equipment to determine VO2 but they can monitor their heart rate and therefore work out the percentages. The mathematics are simple as the rate is not predictable it does not have any variations according to age, sex and gender, or level of fitness.


Why athlete’s recommend them










• They precisely measure the intensity of exercise by evaluating how hard your heart is working.
• The measurement of the heart rate is the4 only effective measure of knowing how beneficial the exercise is.
• They can help to increase motivation because they are a measure of performance.
• Because you can monitor how beneficial the exercise is you can condense the exercise into the minimum amount of time necessary to get the full benefit of the exercise.
• It allows you more control over your exercise periods as you can regulate not only the length of them but also the intensity.
• It provides immediate feedback that allows you to make immediate change in the regulation of the heart rate, which means the heart, has less strain.



Types Of Heart Rate Monitors.
The majority consists of a chest transmitter that monitors the electrical signals of the heart, and then sends this rate to a receiver usually on a wristband. The “watch” type receiver shows the heart information in rates per minute.

How to use a heart monitor
The first thing you need to ascertain is your maximum heart rate, and this is normally done by an exercise stress test. If you are over the age of thirty-five then it is advisable to have a physical before undergoing this.


Setting target goals for each workout
There are different types of workouts, one is a long slow consistent workout or you have workouts using high bursts of energy. The training zone can be anywhere between seventy and ninety percent of the max heart rate, but the monitor helps you stay within the band you have set to achieve an improvement.

Improving your Athletic Performance
Working towards an improvement is the biggest single reason for using a heart rate monitor during exercise. If you are thirty years of age and you run for an hour and you cover 6.66 miles, at an average of nine minutes an hour, and your maximum heart rate is 145 a minute, what do you have to do to improve. As your fitness peak improves then running a mile will eventually not challenge the aerobic system, so to continue at the same rate will maintain fitness but not improve it. The time per mile must decrease to improve optimum fitness, or increase the workload, that is run into a head wind; although the time will be slower the heart will have to work harder.
Setting realistic useful goals.

Before improving your performance you have to decide what needs improvement, do you want to work to get faster, fitter, or stronger. Serious Training for Serious Athletes by R. Sleamaker covers plan that utilize the different target zones for different types of workout
different types of workouts. Before changing your current schedule of fitness training observe and monitor your readings for a while. This means that you are certain to know your current heart rate for a specific activity. Above all listen to your body and do not allow yourself to push your body beyond a safe limit, if in doubt, stop.

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ARTICLE 40
Blood pressure monitors.

In this article:
• What is the heart?
• What is blood pressure?
• How Is Blood Pressure Measured?
• What is considered a normal reading?
• Variations in blood pressure.
• What is Hypertension?
• What Type of Monitor Is Best.


What is the heart?
The heart is an incredible machine that beats approximately 100,000 times in a single day, over a lifetime that is about 2.5 billion times; but put prosaically the heart is just a pump, which sends blood through the arteries to the muscles and organs. Pumps of any description work on the principals of pressure, and put the heart under too much strain and one of the arteries can burst or the heart can stop beating. The muscles of the heart work hard, even when resting between pumps it works twice as hard as leg muscles do when sprinting.


What is Blood Pressure?

Blood pressure is the force that the blood exerts on the artery walls, as it passes through them. Blood pressure exerts two forces the first is known as systemic arterial blood pressure. Systemic pressure is when the heart pumps blood as it exits the heart through the arteries, to the circulatory system. The blood pressure from the heart in the arteries is always lower than the blood being carried back to the heart by the veins.



The secondary force is the force of the arteries when they resist the blood flow. In simplistic terms this means that blood pressure is how forcefully the pump is working per minute and how relaxed the arteries are. When the blood is forced through the arteries at too great a speed then high blood pressure or hypertension is caused



How Is Blood Pressure Measured?


Blood pressure is measured using two numbers, which are always represented as a fraction. For example if a blood pressure reading was spoken as being a hundred and ten over ninety, it would always be written as '110/90mmHg'. The mmHg means ‘millimeters of mercury’; until recently before the advent of home blood pressure monitors it was a unit of measurement measured by a sphygmomanometer, which measured your pressure over a column of mercury.

The top pressure is always the systolic pressure and the bottom is always the diastolic blood pressure. The systolic pressure is the maximum rate of heartbeat, or contraction, when it is pushing the blood out of the heart to the body. Diastolic blood pressure is the minimum pressure in the arteries between beats when the heart is relaxing and the ventricles are filling up with blood.


What is considered a normal reading?

• Isolated systolic hypertension
As we age the elasticity of the arteries alters and the blood pressure become naturally elevated. Often the diastolic resting level is normal but the systolic level starts to rise and this is called isolated systolic hypertension. Whilst it is normal it still requires medical attention and treatment.

However there is no such thing as an absolute safe standard blood, controlling blood pressure is always crucial but diabetics are more at risk and there blood pressure should be lower than most people’s.
Those who are at special risk should have a systolic pressure no pore than 140-159mmHg, and a diastolic pressure of between 90-99mmHg. In general terms anything over 160mmHg over 100mmHg is high.
Those patients with diabetes, kidney disease or have already suffered a stroke or heart attack, should aim for a lower safer pressure of 130/80 mmHg.


Variations in blood pressure
There are fairly normal variations in a blood pressure reading over a twenty-four hour period, depending on the activities you are doing or the stress you are experiencing. Blood pressure is lower whilst you sleep because this is the time you are most relaxed.

In a single day your systolic blood pressure may vary by 30 to 40 mmHg and have a proportionate increase in the diastolic, therefore it is important to measure it at the same time. If there is a large variant pressure over time it is possible to wear a cuff monitor fore a complete twenty-four hour period, this allows a doctor to attempt to isolate the cause of hypertension.


What is Hypertension?

Hypertension occurs when the blood is forced through the arteries at too high a speed. Unfortunately there are rarely any symptoms when this occurs and for this reason hypertension is known as the silent killer. Severe symptoms are headaches, confusion, coma, and sleepiness.








Prolonged untreated hypertension causes a number of life threatening complications. It increases the risks of strokes, which are blood clots or a haemorrhage in the brain. Narrowing of the arteries or atherosclerosis, a reduction in the hearts pumping mechanism and a heart attack. Other complications are an aneurysm, which is an expansion in the main artery of the chest or abdomen, which is then in danger of rupturing. It may also result in eye and renal damage.






What Type of Monitor Is Best?

A consistent monitoring is important and wrong diagnosis can result from an incorrect reading. Taking and monitoring your own blood pressure makes you feel more in control of your medical condition as you can monitor any lifestyle changes that you have made. However be aware that it may make you more nervous at least initially, and this may drive your blood pressure up. If you decide to use one the best methods is to make the measurements a part of your daily routine, like cleaning your teeth.


There are three types of blood pressure monitors, and they measure from the finger, the wrist, or the arm. The finger types are notoriously inaccurate, and should not be used. The wrist type can only produce an accurate reading if the arm is elevated to precisely the level of the heart, and as they are not user friendly they should be avoided.












The most reliable are the arm type as it gives the most accurate measurement.

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EGYPT THREE ARTICLES

ARTICLE 1

THE NILE

“I will now turn to Egypt, because this country possesses many marvellous things and monuments which surpass all description and comparison with those of any other place…”(Herodotus, Histories, II, 37.)

The Nile, the world’s longest river runs through Upper Egypt, we have all heard of Speke and Burton, who yearned to find its source, of Tutankhamen, the boy king who slumbered undisturbed in the Valley of the Kings for over three thousand years, before Howard Carter shattered his peace forever. Few of us will forget the evocative name shaduff one of the oldest means of irrigation known to man, so romantic is the name we can see the pink haze shimmering in the distance and the white Brahmin cow pulling the pivot bringing forth life in the waters of the Nile.

From the Pharaohs, through to the tales of Cleopatra and Julius Caesar immortalised by Shakespeare, we have listened enthralled. Even Papyrus the world’s first writing parchment was discovered in Egypt. The scarab beetle, the Gods of Ra, Horus and Seth, all evoke something, in all of us. Even the illiterates are not immune to the lure of the great River and Egypt, the classic cinema epics of Cecil B DeMille, The Ten Commandments, The King of Kings, and Cleopatra, all tell the biblical tale of Egypt.

In short the power of mystery and majesty of the world’s greatest River has been etched on every aspect of our consciousness as children. Whether we have an interest in palaeontology, archaeology, history , geography or geometry Egypt entices us, from the literature of Wilbur Smith in the Seven Scrolls and the Sunbird, or the cinema or the Bible. The lure of the Nile that has ebbed and flowed since time began has a memory for all of us and for all of us that memory is different. Fertility is the source of the Nile’s richness, not the fecundity of its people, the richness of its soil. Since the dawn of man water has been vital to the development of fields and agriculture, later towns and later still civilisation.

Life began in the area we know as Egypt about 40,000 years ago. The ancient Egyptians are credited with being one of the first civilisations to plant seeds, despite the fact that the soil on the banks of the Nile is very heavy and it has high clay content. Life evolved around the crop cycle, planting, and harvesting; the annual flooding of the Nile was imperative in a country with almost zero rainfall. The ancient Egyptian’s made clay houses to shelter from the elements. Society had developed to the level of a unified kingdom about 3200 B.C. and a series of pharaohs or kings were to rule for three thousand years. That means that ancient history is of paramount importance in the region, by the time of Christ the area was in decline.

The origins of the unified Egyptian state are as murky as the waters of the Nile. There are no contemporary sources, and later sources are contentious, it is accepted my most scholars that about 3000 BC, the Nile valley was unified. This area is thought to have been from the Nile Delta and the first cataract at Aswan, the seat of its power was the city of Memphis. According to Manetho, an ancient Greek historian, one of the few writers whose works have survived the King was known as Menes.

During the period of the Pharaohs huge burial chambers were built to honour the kings, and the pyramids are the only surviving wonder of the ancient world. The wealth and power of these great dynasties were not rivalled anywhere else in the world. Certainly Chinese civilisation is as old, and as illustrious, but not as wealthy. Ancient Egypt consisted of two upper and lower kingdoms; the Upper kingdom covered the area we know as Southern Egypt today whilst the lower was the North. Whilst this description may seem juxtaposed it does not originate in geography, but geology. The Nile flows north wards or upstream to the Mediterranean that is downstream.

Upper Kingdom.
Stretching along both banks of the Nile from Lake Moeris to the area of the River known as the cataract, or waterfall, which was then the border of the Nubian kingdom. It as a long thin stretch of land barely thirteen miles wide, flanked by mountains, but it is 750 miles in depth. Its major cities were Heracleopolis, Hermopolis, Abydos, and Thebes. Upper Egypt was separated from the Red Sea by a wadi or a dry riverbed. Today there are islands where the power of water has coursed through the hills eroding and isolating them.

Lower Egypt
The kingdom of Lower Egypt was the Nile Delta, a huge basin where according to Pliny seven branches of the River Nile flowed into the Mediterranean Sea. This was the food basin of the two kingdoms as the Nile flooded over the alluvial plains The Delta contained two-thirds of Egypt's arable land and was where most of the principal cities of Lower Egypt lay, Avaris, Tanis (later Pi-Ramses), Sais, and Bubastis. Lower Egypt did contain a small section of the River Nile where the cities of Heliopolis and Memphis were built.

The narrow geographic layout of the old kingdoms made them difficult to attack; however once it did succumb to foreign rule it lasted for over 2,000 years. In 1954 part of President Nasser’s acceptance speech was to state that he was the first native Egyptian to hold sovereignty since 341BC when Nectanebo II, was overthrown by the Persians.

Later the kingdoms were to be ruled by the Greeks, and the Romans. It was the Arabs who brought Islam to Egypt in the seventh Century and they were to reign supreme for the next six hundred years. The Mamluks seized administrative control in the thirteenth Century and they managed to hold it until the Turks invaded in 1517, the Egypt was to become a part of the Ottoman Empire under the control of the Byzantines, until 1882 when it became under the control of Britain, until independence.


The Nile as the world’s longest River is 4132 miles long is more than an Egyptian River; it rises South of the equator in Burundi, flowing through the Congo, Eritrea, Zaire, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania, Sudan and Uganda. However the Nile transforms Egypt, without it Egypt would have been indistinguishable from any other Saharan country, the Nile and Egypt are intertwined. The origin of the name is the Greek word Neilos or river valley, but the ancient Egyptians called it the River Aur, which means black. Beyond the Nile the country of Egypt is a desert with a series of five fertile oases. Their fertility is ensured by a sandstone bed 500 ft. below the surface,the water forces itself through natural fissures to the surface. One of the phenomena of Egypt is the mirage which can be seen in the desert and the uncultivated lands in the North, the optical illusion of icebergs and ships are co clear they are often perceived to be real.

Many of the modern cities contain the relics of the Pharaohs, Greeks or Romans. The Pyramids of Gizeh are a mere eight miles from the west of the capitol Cairo. There are many monasteries and churches dating back to the earliest times of Christianity. Any traveller in today’s Egypt can witness the character of the orient and the occident, the ancient and modern nestle tantalisingly side by side.

ARTICLE 2

THE EGYPTIAN RED SEA RIVIERA.

THE EGYPTIAN RIVIERA.

The red Sea Riviera is a geographical area on both sides of the Gulf of Aqaba, comprising of Egyptian, Jordanian, Israeli and Saudi Arabian territory. Within Egypt the Red sea Riviera has two distinct areas, the Sinai Peninsula, and the East Coast of Egypt. As we have read the Nile flows through many countries, and Egypt offers far more than Nile cruises. The Sinai is a mountainous desert peninsula, sweeping down to white coral sands. It contains the highest peak in Egypt, which is Mount Catherine, which at 2,629 metres offers a panoramic view of the whole of the peninsula.
























The Sinai Peninsula is Egypt cut off from the mainland by the Suez Canal. It incorporates the past the present and the future, known correctly as South West Asia, it has always been the pathway between Africa and Asia. In the ancient past precious metals were mined here. Alexander the Great fought for the land, the Book of Exodus tells the tale of the wanderings of the Israelites in Exodus, and the ten commandments were revealed on Mount Sinai.

“It has been touched, in one way or another by most of Western and Near Eastern history, both actual and mythic". Sinai, The Great and Terrible Wilderness. Burton Bernstein.

The Northern Sinai Peninsula does not have a coastal region on the Gulf of Aqaba, but south offers a hundred and twenty miles of pure joy! The Egyptian Red Sea Riviera on the Easterly Sinai Peninsula has the towns of Taba, Taba Heights, Nuweiba, Dahab, and the Southerly towns of Sharm el Sheikh. It is an area of outstanding natural beauty and superb water sports facilities. It offers a distinctive contrasting character to the Nile resorts of Luxor, Cairo and Aswan.However in common with the rest of Egypt, there is more than meets the eye to the Egyptian Riviera it has another area in the Upper and Lower kingdom. The resorts of El Gouna, Hurghada, Sahl Hashish, Makadi Bay, Soma Bay and Safaga are to be found. To the South there are the resorts El Quseir and Mersa Alam, which are East of the Nile resort Luxor.The Sinai Peninsula is an area closely associated with the Old and New Testaments.

The Northern area is the Sinai desert whilst the Southern points is mountainous and contains the famous Mount Sinai. It was occupied by Israel from 1967 until 1982. Taba is the most Northerly town of the Egyptian red Sea Riviera resorts; it borders Israel, and is a spit across from Jordan. Because of its geographical location it has had a chequered history, it is a very tiny town, populated by of Bedouins, its mass is little more than a thriving bus station and a luxury hotel complex of five star hotels and casinos. (Taba Heights). It was important because it was the last area of the Sinai to be returned to Egypt under the 1979 Israeli Egyptian Peace Treaty. In 1949 it belonged to Egypt, but was captured by the Israeli’s in the 1967 six-day war.

The Israelis built a luxury hotel and it became a popular luxury Israeli getaway resort. Whilst the 1979 peace treaty was being discussed the territory was argued over by both sides. Finally in 1988 after interminable wrangling had got nowhere it was sent for review to a five man commission comprising of three neutral entities, and the territory became Egyptian. However as a concession to the Israeli’s they were given leave to visit the area for up to forty-eight hours without the aggravation of getting a visa. It is still a popular weekend resort, hence the importance of the bus station. The Egyptian Riviera stretches from Taba in the North to the Ras Mohamed National Park nestling where the Gulf of Suez meets the Gulf of Aqaba at Sinai's southern point.

Unlike the ancient cities the area of the South Sinai, where the desert meets the sea, inspire recreation, rather than culture. The dramatic desert mountains flank the pristine golden beaches with crystal clear aquamarine water. Some of the Red Sea ports dates back to the Phoenician’s, Geziret Faroun, or Pharaohs Island lies just five miles from Taba and you can swim to it from the Gulf of Aqaba. In the twelfth century the crusaders built a base from which to disrupt Arab trade, as well as being a safe haven for pilgrims travelling from Jerusalem to the monastery of St Catherine’s. This castle was later fortified by the Mamelukes and reputed to be a refuge for T.E. Lawrence, better known as Lawrence of Arabia; he made several journeys to the island in June 1914.

In ancient times the Sinai was known as Mafkat or the land of Turquoise. Bronze age settlers found and mined the metal at Wadi Maghareh and Serabit el-Khadim, and these would have been amongst the earliest known mines in the world. Eventually the precious metal came to the notice of the pharaohs and it was often used in ancient pieces of jewelry. There is a temple ruin at Serabit dedicated to Hathor, the ancient God of miners. St Catherine’s, a Greek Orthodox monastery is one of the most famous monasteries in the world; it houses the remains of St Catherine who was beheaded for her beliefs. The monastery’s Byzantium basilica dates back to 527BC. It is famed for its library, which houses the largest collection of Christian manuscripts outside of the Vatican.

The resort of Nuweiba was once the resting place for the Islamic pilgrim’s undertaking the hajj the once in a life-time pilgrimage to Mecca. Nowadays it is a beautiful beach resort between the Gulf of Aqaba and the high desert mountains. The area is still populated by the Bedouin tribe and it is possible to visit their villages by the traditional, but somewhat painful route, on the back of a camel. For those who prefer a little more comfort then jeep safaris are very popular.

The coral and marine life in the Red Sea are magnificent and diverse, it is of course like any other ocean coloured blue, but the backdrop of the mineral rich red mountains was thought to inspire the name Mare Rostrum, or the Red Sea. The Sinai Peninsula offers some of the most spectacular diving and snorkelling opportunities in the world. The beach resorts cater to every taste and budget from the back packer to five-star sartorial elegance. However whilst the diving on the whole of the peninsula is truly spectacular, the Gulf of Aqaba has a lush range of both hard and soft coral. The North Sinai is quieter for the diver it has less of the hustle and bustle of the South. The Northern beaches offering lagoons, fjords, and an island as well as stunning coves are unrivalled in most of the world.

The road between Taba and Nuweiba offers some of the most stunning scenery on the peninsula renowned for its picturesque aspect. Nuweiba lies on either side of the Wadi Watir delta which is nearly sixty miles north of Sharm el-Sheikh, and consists of two Bedouin villages, separated by an eighteenth Century Citadel.Dahab, meaning gold in Arabic, was historically a Bedouin fishing village, it became a backpacker’s paradise, but now it offers excellent five star hotels. It is especially famous for it’s windsurfing, as it has flat beaches and a reliable source of wind. Sharm El Sheikh is the most accessible and developed of the resorts on the Egyptian Riviera, for the tourist it offers a spectacular array of local and foreign merchandise.

Wherever you stay on the Egyptian Riviera the amenities of diving, snorkelling, windsurfing and other water sports are available. The other attractions are desert safaris either by jeep or camel, or riding some of the magnificent Arabian horses. Other available activities are golf, or exploring the antiquities. The Red Sea has always produced spectacular storms and the proof if this lies on its ocean floor. There are nearly twenty ship wrecks in the Red Sea, so the area is also famous for its wreck diving. If you have to take your diving to another level then the range of wreck diving is spectacular. Night diving on a wreck is a experience even experienced divers’ tend not to forget in a hurry. There is something eerie about going in the sea in the pitch black, but it offers a completely different scenario to day diving, watching the fish feed is a magical experience. Many of the wrecks can be seen by boat and snorkelling. In short whatever your preference on holiday the Egyptian Riviera offers something for everyone, whether it is a romantic weekend away, or a family holiday. Whether you want to wander and drift or explore, the antiquities of Egypt, the Red Sea is a perfect destination.

ARTICLE THREE :

THE MYSTERIES OF CAIRO AND EGYPT.
Egypt is absolutely unique; it is the only country to offer a monument that has survived, in our terms, from pre-history. The pyramids of Giza, overlooking their enigmatic sphinx have stood guard since ancient times. Eons before it became a modern wonder it was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, and the only one to survive the ravages of time. Mythology, mystery, monumental forces, ancient pharaohs who live on in the name of Ramses the Great and the boy king Tutankhamun, the enigmatic sphinx waiting to reveal her secret, no tale of Egypt is complete without them.

For over millennium the Nile has coursed through Egypt influencing more than its geography and geology in its confluence. It has irrigated and cut through the desert creating a series of oasis’s that has made Egypt the country it is today. An ancient Arab proverb sums up the archaeological aspect of Egypt

“ Insults should be written in sand, compliments should be carved in stone,” another says“Man fears Time, yet Time fears the Pyramids”. What else can be said of monuments begun 4,500 years ago?

Today, the Great Pyramid, and two other large pyramids which house the tombs of Khufu, Khafra, and Menkaura, together with the Sphinx and six smaller pyramids, temples, and other tombs are referred to as the Giza Plateau. Khufu, Khafra, and Menkaura were grandfather, son, and grandson, whilst the other six pyramids are the burial place of their Queens. Within the complex each pyramid has its own mortuary and temple. There are also Mastabas or rectangular tombs dotted around the site, and it is supposed that they belonged to members of the family with a lesser rank than King and Queen. The museum of the Sun boat flanks the South side, this beautiful wooden boat was discovered fifty years ago, at the base of the pyramid, buried in a pit. It has been lovingly restored as the vehicle believed to have been used to carry the body of Khufu to his resting place inside the pyramid. Little is known of Khufu the ruler for whom the Great Pyramid is built, but he must have been a man capable of coordinating a kingdom and utilizing a system that mobilized men to build the pyramids.When the great pyramid was built its mathematical precision was extraordinary, it was 481 feet high, and the sloping angle of each side is precisely 51 degrees and 51 minutes. The horizontal cross section of the pyramid is square at every level, and side measures 229 m (751 ft) in length. The maximum error between the side lengths is astonishingly less than 0.1%, and that has been measured with the benefit of modern instruments. It has been built so well that it not possible even today to fit a piece of card between the crevices of the interior walls. Few building today will measure up to those exacting mathematical standards.To put the size into a visual concept is difficult, but the context of over 2 million building bricks each over two tons in weight may be meaningless.

Hypothetically historians have suggested that if the pyramids were to be demolished the resultant blocks of stone could be used to construct a wall approaching the height of two men and a foot thick around the country of France. The purpose of the pyramids has become one of life’s great modern mysteries, but the fact remains that their purpose has been lost in the annals of time. Five hundred years before the birth of Christ the Greek historian, Herodotus visited the pyramids, and he surmised that over a 100,000 people were involved in their construction. Though we will never know modern scientists believe that 20,000 would be a truer estimate.

What is incredible that a work force of that size must have meant an enormous social structure? Where did those workers live, they would have needed houses, shops, cemeteries, they could not have commuted to work. One of the ideas about the construction of the pyramids was that they were constructed by slave labour. Modern archaeologists now think that it was built by workers who were paid for their labour, probably in fiscal terms, but if not then they had a over riding belief in an after life. The discovery of a town where the artisans lived in 2003 has shown that many of them had their own hearth, and therefore lived in a family unit. Both facts as well as the precision of the buildings suggest that the labour was not carried out by slaves.
The finds that are still being discovered means that the ancient world is as relevant today as in the past. Modern discoveries may not be as exciting as Carter’s discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamun, but they can shed a lot of light as to how people lived nearly five thousand years ago.

There have been many theories as to the purpose of the pyramids but without straying into an esoteric argument as to whether God was an Astronaut, we will for the moment have to assume the simple truth that the pyramids were tombs for their Royal users to travel to an afterlife. The pyramids at Giza are not the oldest but they are the only ones left standing and it remains to be seen whether or not Sahara will ever yield the rest of her secrets? The riddle of the sphinx refers to the enigma of whose cameo was used? The face of the Great Sphinx is believed to be that of Chephren, the pharaoh who built the second-largest pyramid in the Giza triad. It is carved out of natural limestone and it towers sixty-five feet high and is two hundred and forty feet in length.These pyramids are across the River Nile from Cairo. The Giza Plateau extends to Memphis, Abusir and Saqqara, and most of the pyramids were built in this area.

The Step Pyramid of Doser is located at Saqqara and the Red and Bent pyramids of Senefru are located at Abusir. All these latter pyramids are older than the Giza triad, but they have not weathered time as well. The bend pyramid was intended to be larger than the Giza pyramids, but the bedrock would not hold the weight. None of the pyramids have been built on sand they all have a bedrock base. Memphis founded and named after Menes the first dynasty ruler was the capitol of the old kingdom for most of the times of the Pharaohs. Originally known as inbw-hdj, or "white walls", was thought to have been named after a fort near the modern town of Abusir, which is situated in the valley to the east of the Saqqara necropolis. As Memphis was built next to the riverbed, on low-lying land, the changing patters of the riverbed the rising water table, and time have all ravaged the city, and little of ancient times remain. Memphis exists today less that twenty miles South of Cairo, but in ancient times it was one of the most important cities of the ancient world, by the fifth Century BC it would have been a cosmopolitan city with a population from all over the Mediterranean basin.

Nothing remains from the old kingdom but the remains of the Temple of Ptah can be seen, though in nothing like their former glory, as in its time it was probably one of the major temples of Egypt. Few tombs are in this area as burial grounds were situated at the nearby necropolis at Saqqara, Dashur, Giza, Abusir, Abu Roash and Zawiyet el-Aryan, In fact we do not know why later dynasties chose to move the capitol to Thebes, but the city of Memphis retained its importance as a religious city.

Aswan offers a different world; the Nile here is at its most picturesque. There are many islands and the traditional Arab feluccas can be seen gliding along the water in front of the backdrop of date palms. Feluccas have navigated the waters of the Nile for Centuries and as they only have sails the rate of progression can be brisk or very slow depending on the wind. The temples at Abu Simbel are a visual reminder to most as to how they perceive Egypt to be. During the construction of the Aswan dam in the 1960’s these massive temples were moved 200 feet higher and 600 feet West. Unesco assisted Egypt in the dismantling of the temple and the cliff rock out of which it was carved and the relocation to higher ground across Lake Nasser. Thus ensuring future management of the mighty Nile and a permanent resting place for Ramesses, in exactly the same relation to the sun as they had been carved.The two temples are that of Ramesses II primarily dedicated to Re-Harakhte, and that of his wife, Nefertari dedicated to Hathor, the goddess of love and beauty.

Another archaeological monuments are two statues of Amenhotep III at Thebes, the ancient capital know known as Luxor, or more correctly El-Aksur, it is also known as the City of the Palaces. Modern Luxor actually comprises of three sites, the city of Luxor which is on the East banks of the Nile, the town of Karnak, just North of Luxor and Thebes, and the region which ancient Egyptians named Waset, which is on the west side of the Nile across from the city of Luxor.A Nile cruise without visiting Luxor is inconceivable the area was a major tourist attraction in Roman times!

On the East Bank, is the Temple of Luxor built by Amenophis III, and is regarded as one of the most buildings in Thebes. The temple was known to the Egyptians as Apet Amunresyet, or the "Southern Harem of Amun", dedicated to Amun, his consort Mut and their son the moon god Khons. In common with the design of most temples it has a chapel for the deities, with vestibules and a subsidiary chambers, a large hall and an open court, which was approached from the north by an enormous colonnade. Amenhotep III built his mortuary temple here in Luxor, but all that has survived are his seventy-five foot statues, one with his wife and a daughter and the other with his mother. Adorning the sides of the statues is a relief showing the Nile Gods twining two plants, which symbolizes the fusion of the kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt. They are known historically as the statues of Memnon, son of Eos and Tithonus, who was killed by Achilles during the Trojan War, because the Greek visitors three thousand years ago mistook them for Memnon the statues are known to locals as el-Colossat, or es-Salamat.

The Temples of Karnak are a huge complex of temples, the construction was begun in the Middle kingdom, but for the next two millennium, until the Roman era, they would be embellished enlarged demolished, and restored in a demonic cycle of creation and destruction. It is a sort of an expo Theme park depicting all aspects of Egyptian religion and beliefs. Whether you view the complete complex or just the Hypostile Hall in the Great Temple of Amun this is one of the jewels in the Egyptian antiquaries crown. It was the largest temple complex in history, housing at least thirteen temples, named in ancient times the most hallowed of places. The temple of Amon dominates the complex and because of its size it is often erroneously referred to as the temple of Karnak. The complete complex is 1500 x 800 meters, if you cannot summon the energy to explore all of it then don't miss the Hypostile Hall in the Great Temple of Amun.








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